Migration and Urbanisation:  Dynamics of Exclusion and Exploitation

Dr. Kuldeepsingh Rajput

Urbanisation in India is a defining feature of the country’s economic and social transformation, with cities emerging as ’Growth Engines. Cities have long been considered the driving force of economic, social, and cultural development. They are hubs of innovation, commerce, and opportunity, attracting people from diverse backgrounds seeking improved living standards, employment, and social mobility. However, India has also experienced uneven urban growth alongside a rise in the informal sector, due to structural changes in the post-liberalization economy. This has led to significant regional disparities and accelerated internal migration. Factors such as the degradation of agricultural land, climate change, shrinking employment opportunities, and the increasing casualisation of rural labour have contributed to the migration of people to cities. Therefore, it is critical to understand a composite and symbiotic relationship between agrarian distress, migration and rapid urbanisation.  

Migration is an important and pervasive feature of the Indian economy and urbanisation.  According to the 2011 Census, there were 450 million internal migrants in India. It is estimated that in India there were 600 million internal migrants in 2020. These numbers are enormous and constantly increasing. Most migrants come from poor and marginalised communities and get absorbed in the urban labour market as it remains a ‘quick-job-giving’ sector for them. Migrants in cities engage in several unorganised activities such as construction, brick kilns, street vending, rag picking, domestic work, sanitation work, textiles mills, hotels, restaurants, etc. These migrants, though they are poor and socially disadvantaged, play a critical role in the development and economic growth of cities. They are integral to the urban labour force, contributing to various sectors that are essential for the functioning of cities. Their work enables urban centers to expand and thrive, supporting infrastructure development and the provision of services that benefit all city dwellers. The destination cities benefit from migrants’ contribution that fuels the economic activity. According to some estimates, there are around 100 million internal migrant workers who contribute up to 10 per cent of India’s GDP. The growing economic contribution of destination cities in India would not be achievable without migrants. Additionally, migrants play a vital role in boosting the rural economy through the remittances they send back home. The contribution of migrants is not only limited to destination economies, they are key actors and vital contributors in achieving Sustainable Development Goals also. Beyond physical labour, migrants also bring diverse skills, knowledge, innovative practices and cultural perspectives that enrich the urban environment as well as to their native places.  

However, it is so paradoxical that these migrants in cities remain invisible and highly exploited actors despite their immense potential, contribution, and crucial role in the development process. It was the exodus of migrants during the COVID-19 pandemic that brought attention to migrants and helped us realise their plight. While cities promise opportunities for a better life, millions of migrants are relegated to marginalized areas with limited access to the benefits of urban living. This marginalization manifests in various ways, leading to social, economic, and spatial exclusion. The destination cities function as ‘exclusionary zones’ and push the migrants to the margin. Deshingkar, Naik, & Ahmed (2022) have rightly noted that in cities, migrants experience multiple layers of discrimination, exclusionary practices and interlocking axes of oppression. Migrants have to pay a huge cost for their movement and even as they remain critically marginalised in cities. This urban exclusion prevents them from fully participating in the benefits of urban life and exacerbates inequality in many urban centres. This makes migrants the most vulnerable segment among the unorganised workforce. 

The major dynamics of exclusion faced by migrants in the city are as follows:  

1. Economic Exclusion 

Migrants typically occupy low-wage, unorganised jobs that lack legal protections or social security. These jobs often include work in sectors like construction, domestic labour, sanitation, and street vending. Although these jobs are essential to the functioning of cities, they often offer low wages, long hours, and poor working conditions. Without formal employment contracts or benefits, migrants are highly vulnerable to exploitation and face economic insecurity. Moreover, their exclusion from the formal labour market limits their ability to accumulate wealth or achieve social mobility. 

2. Social and Cultural Marginalization 

Migrants, particularly those from different regions, ethnic groups, or castes, often face significant social and cultural exclusion. They are frequently viewed as “outsiders” by the local population and may encounter discrimination based on their accent, cultural practices, or social background. This social exclusion limits their ability to integrate into the broader urban community, leading to feelings of isolation and alienation. Additionally, the lack of social networks in the city makes it harder for migrants to access job opportunities, healthcare, or educational resources, further deepening their marginalization. 

3. Legal and Political Exclusion 

Migrants often lack the official documentation or legal status required to access basic services or participate fully in civic life. Without proper identification, they may be excluded from social welfare programs, healthcare services, and educational institutions. Legal exclusion also extends to voting rights, as many migrants do not have the necessary residence documentation to register to vote, preventing them from participating in local elections and having a say in policies that affect them. This lack of political representation further marginalizes migrants, leaving their needs and concerns unaddressed by policymakers. 

4. Limited Access to Public Services 

Migrants often face barriers to accessing essential public services such as education, healthcare, and social welfare. Many urban welfare programs require proof of residence or formal identification, which migrants may not possess. As a result, migrant children may struggle to enroll in schools, migrants may not be able to access medical care, and they may be excluded from public assistance programs. The lack of access to these vital services further entrenches their exclusion, making it harder for them to improve their quality of life and integrate into the city. 

5. Vulnerability in Times of Crisis 

Migrants are particularly vulnerable during times of economic or social crisis. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the extreme vulnerability of migrants, particularly those in informal employment. When cities went into lockdown, millions of internal migrants in India and other countries were stranded without work, shelter, or resources. Many were forced to travel long distances back to their rural homes, facing dire conditions along the way. The lack of social safety nets and legal protections left migrants exposed to exploitation, health risks, and social exclusion. 

6. Housing and Spatial Exclusion 

Housing is a major issue for migrants, who are frequently forced to live in informal settlements or slums on the periphery of cities. These areas are overcrowded, lack basic services like clean water, sanitation, and electricity, and are often located far from economic hubs. Migrants are excluded from formal housing markets due to high prices and the lack of legal documentation, which keeps them from securing stable and affordable accommodation. This spatial segregation reinforces their marginalization, as it limits access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities available in more central urban areas.  

While migrants play a crucial role in the functioning and growth of cities, they remain one of the most excluded and vulnerable groups in urban settings. Economic insecurity, inadequate housing, social discrimination, legal barriers, and limited access to public services all contribute to their marginalization. To address this exclusion, cities must adopt inclusive urban policies that provide access to essential services, legal protections, affordable housing and opportunities for social integration. Only by recognizing the value of migrants and addressing the systemic barriers they face can cities become truly inclusive spaces for all residents.

By Dr. Kuldeepsingh Rajput (The author is a Migration Scholar and Founder Director of RUBAL Foundation www.rubalfoundation.org)